Epictetus was a Stoic philosopher whose remarkable life took him from slavery in the Roman Empire to becoming one of the most influential teachers of Stoicism. Although he wrote nothing himself, his teachings were preserved by his student Arrian in the Discourses and Enchiridion. His experience of slavery appears to have had a lasting influence on his philosophy, in which freedom became one of the central themes.
Epictetus and the Roman World
Epictetus lived during one of the most powerful and prosperous periods in Roman history, when the Roman Empire was expanding and eventually reached its greatest territorial extent. During his life, many dramatic events occurred: civil war, assassinated emperors, and dynastic changes. Epictetus was enslaved to Tiberius Claudius Epaphroditus, who served as Nero’s secretary. Epaphroditus was present at Nero’s death. More precisely, he helped Nero commit suicide. In a sense, we may say that Epictetus lived through some of the best and some of the worst. For a man who taught that political office, status, wealth and power are external things, he certainly had plenty of live demonstrations.
Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium around the beginning of the third century BC, was already a few centuries old by Epictetus’s lifetime. Other famous Stoics of the Roman imperial period were Seneca the Younger, Musonius Rufus, and Marcus Aurelius. Seneca the Younger left behind numerous philosophical works and letters. He is particularly known for his 124 surviving letters to his friend Lucilius. Musonius Rufus was Epictetus’s teacher. Marcus Aurelius was an emperor and the author of the famous Meditations. Epictetus worked within the existing Stoic tradition, although he placed distinctive emphasis on certain ideas, particularly what is and is not up to us.
From Slavery to Philosophy
Epictetus was born enslaved around 50 AD in Hierapolis, in what is now Turkey. At some point in his life he came to Rome. We don’t know exactly when it happened. In Rome he belonged to the household of Tiberius Claudius Epaphroditus, a former slave who had become a powerful imperial freedman. Little is known about Epictetus’s formal education, but he was allowed to attend the lectures of Musonius Rufus, one of the most prominent Stoic philosophers in Rome.
Probably around 80 AD, Epictetus was freed. His experience of slavery appears to have had a lasting influence on him, and freedom became one of the central themes of his teaching. He argued that a person can be legally free while still being enslaved by desires, fears, ambitions, or dependence on external things. After gaining his freedom, he became a teacher of philosophy under the patronage of Musonius Rufus.
In the early 90s AD, during the reign of emperor Domitian, philosophers were expelled from Rome and Italy. Epictetus left Rome and settled in Nicopolis, in what is now northwestern Greece. He remained there until the end of his life. In his old age he retired from teaching, adopted a child, and raised him with the help of a female housekeeper. He died sometime around 130-135 AD.
Epictetus’s School
In his school Epictetus taught all three traditional branches of Stoic philosophy: Logic: reasoning, argument, knowledge, impressions, and how we determine what is true. Physics: nature, God, causation, and the structure of the universe. Ethics: how human beings should live and what constitutes a good human life. Students studied Stoic texts, especially works by Chrysippus, discussed and explained them, answered questions, defended arguments, and also completed written work. Epictetus understood that just knowing philosophical theory was not enough. It had to be practiced. The goal was to transform character and behavior. Therefore, his teachings addressed practical problems such as illness, anger, family matters, fear, and death. Students needed to examine their judgments and apply philosophy in everyday situations.
Epictetus appears to have been a forceful and demanding teacher. Students had to first apply to the school, and Epictetus decided whether they were accepted. New students initially received some guidance from more experienced students. Most of the students were young men from wealthy families. Some of them planned to pursue philosophy as a career. While teaching, Epictetus frequently used Socratic question-and-answer methods as well as examples and analogies drawn from everyday life. He used humor and irony. Sometimes he insulted or rebuked his students, calling them “slaves,” “wretches,” and “blind.” The intent was to reveal their biases, blind spots, and personal flaws. With regard to scheduling, students appear to have spent the mornings studying the formal Stoic curriculum, while Epictetus sometimes used the afternoons for the more practical and informal discussions. These appear to be the kind of talks preserved in Arrian's Discourses.
Arrian, the Discourses, and the Enchiridion
Thankfully for us, one of his students, Flavius Arrianus, known simply as Arrian, decided to write down Epictetus’s teachings. His notes eventually became two works: The Discourses and The Enchiridion. Arrian later claimed that he had tried to preserve Epictetus’s actual words rather than compose polished philosophical works of his own. He probably did some editing of his notes. One interesting fact is that Arrian’s other works use literary Greek, while the Discourses use conversational Koine Greek, which supports the idea that Arrian preserved Epictetus’s actual speaking style. Arrian later became an important historian and author. His most famous historical work is Anabasis of Alexander, an account of Alexander the Great’s campaigns.
The Discourses provide the most extensive surviving record of Epictetus’s teaching. They contain detailed speeches, conversations, examples, exchanges with students, and practical philosophical teachings. Originally there were more books, possibly eight, but only four survive. The Enchiridion, on the other hand, is a condensed selection or digest of Epictetus’s teaching, closely connected to the Discourses. It concentrates heavily on practical philosophical guidance. It also provides additional evidence that some of the original Discourses have been lost. The Enchiridion remained influential long after antiquity. It was read and commented upon in later centuries. During the Byzantine period, the handbook was adapted into three Christian versions. These works rephrased Stoic concepts into ideas that resonated with Christian theology. Ultimately, thanks to Arrian and his dedication, we have pretty good insight into Epictetus’s teachings.
In Sum
There is no doubt that Epictetus’s life was extraordinary. It took him from slavery in Hierapolis to Rome, where he lived in the household of a very powerful man who worked directly for Emperor Nero. In Rome Epictetus learned philosophy under Musonius Rufus, became a free person and began teaching philosophy. During the reign of Domitian, philosophers were expelled from Rome and Italy. Epictetus left Rome and traveled to Nicopolis, where he opened his own school of philosophy.
Thanks to one of his students, Arrian, we have two works preserving his teaching. The Discourses allow us to encounter Epictetus as a teacher, while The Enchiridion condenses much of that teaching into a practical handbook. Throughout his life he experienced remarkable changes, from enslavement to freedom and eventually becoming a respected teacher. His experience of slavery appears to have had a lasting influence on him.
Epictetus remained within the Stoic tradition, but placed distinctive emphasis on freedom, judgment, and our relationship to external circumstances. It seems that his famous distinction between what is and what is not up to us captures that perfectly. He also insists that philosophy needs to be practiced constantly, not merely studied, which is, above all, worth remembering.